Old World monkeys have low, and relatively invariant 2D:4D (high PAE), which is coupled with high levels of intrasexual competition. Our results accord with those found in humans: 2D:4D is lower in polygynous species and higher (lower PAE) in pair-bonded species. To place 2D:4D research into a broader context, we test the relationship between digit ratios and behavior across nonhuman anthropoids polygynous species, with higher levels of intrasexual competition, should have more pronounced markers of PAE (lower 2D:4D) than pair-bonded species.
This evidence suggests that PAE may be implicated in the development of sexually selected behaviors in humans. In addition, polygynous societies reportedly have lower 2D:4D (higher PAE) than more monogamous populations. 2D:4D has been correlated with a number of sex-linked traits in humans such as aggression, promiscuity, and competitiveness. The second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) has been proposed as a biomarker reflecting prenatal androgen effects (PAE), such that individuals with lower ratios have experienced higher PAE than those with higher ratios.
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